Dark Matter and Dark Energy prove time theory.
What is the universe made up of? Is it made of stars and galaxies, hydrogen gas or planets like ours? The truth is that scientists just do not know what makes up over seventy-five percent of our universe. Most of our understanding of the universe revolves around what we call the Standard Model. This is a theory that explains atomic particles, the structure of atoms and the ways they react and it explains these very well; but there are a number of anomalies that science cannot explain particularly when it comes to the large scale structure of the universe. Cosmologists today generally agree on a structure known as the Concordance Model and even though this and the Standard model predict the outcome of experiments and describe things before we even discover them there are still a number of observations that we just cannot explain.
The most perplexing of these problems are the horizon problem, dark matter, dark energy, and the Pioneer Anomaly. 
The horizon problem is our first puzzle, it arises because our universe is too uniform; the edges are twenty-eight billion light years apart and nothing can travel faster than the speed of light so there is no way heat radiation could have travelled between the two horizons to even out the hot and cold spots created in the big bang and leave the thermal equilibrium we see now.
The next puzzle is dark matter. In the late 1970s, Vera Rubin an astronomer working at the Carnegie Institute in Washington DC, discovered there is not enough mass in distant galaxies to produce the observed spin. The response from physicists was to suggest there must be more matter out there than we can see and they call this unexplained material Dark matter. Then in 1998, astronomers discovered that the universe is expanding at ever-faster speeds, until then, everyone thought the universe's expansion was slowing down after the big bang they coined the term Dark energy to explain this strange acceleration.
Pioneer 10 was launched in 1972 and Pioneer 11 followed a year later but something has been pulling, or pushing them enough to have shifted Pioneer 10 over 400,000 kilometres off track. NASA lost touch with Pioneer 11 in 1995, but up to that point it was being subjected to exactly the same deviation as its sister probe. A multitude of theories have been considered in the effort to explain these abnormalities but none has provided a provable solution. Strings, branes and other concepts are less able to solve the mysteries than is the Standard Model hypothesis.
Einstein’s theories form the foundation of our understanding and one of the physicists on whose work Einstein based his concepts was Ernst Mach. Mach’s Principle is a term coined by Einstein in 1918; although Einstein later abandoned the principle when it was realized that inertia is implicit in the geodesic equation of motion and need not depend on the existence of matter elsewhere in the universe. The core of "Mach's Principle" is something like this: the inertia of a body is determined in relation to all other bodies in the universe (in short, "matter there governs inertia here"). Mach reputedly claimed that, “All masses and all velocities, and consequently all forces, are relative. There is no decision about relative and absolute which we can possibly meet, to which we are forced, or from which we can obtain any intellectual or other advantage.” In other words Mach extended relativity to include even the velocity of light, an idea not disproved by Einstein but not really understood within the framework of the relativity theories. Despite the fact that Einstein’s time dilation concept should lead us to no other conclusion.
In 1989 my book (The Time Illusion) explained that time itself varies, a concept that can explain not only the problems confounding cosmologists but also many questions of quantum physics such as the nature of Bohm’s implicate and explicate orders and account for so called “paranormal” events. It was not until the discovery of dark energy and the Pioneer Anomaly followed by advances in mathematics (particularly iterated polynomials) that I was able to fully calculate the nature and effect of these changes in time and how they explain the structure of the universe. The result was published in my 2006 book (Physics God and the End of the World) which presented not only a model describing the nature of time and the structure of the universe but also explained prophecy and the paranormal. It concluded that the existence of a Supreme Being is more probable than not; a deduction guaranteed to alienate one from much of the scientific mainstream.
In order to understand the structure of spacetime and Mach’s Principle and how these describe the mysteries of the universe we must first have a proper understanding of gravity. Not simply knowledge of the mathematics but a proper understanding of how matter, energy and time respond to the influence of gravitational force.
Newton’s laws of gravity state, “Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle. With a force whose direction is that of the joining of the two, and whose magnitude is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance from each other”. When particles come together in sufficient numbers, the combined gravitational force has an effect on the structure of atoms and molecules, for example, calculations show the matter at the centre of the Earth to be under pressure equal 3.7 million times that of air pressure at sea level. In the centre of stars matter is so compressed by the force of gravity that the electron shells collapse into a kind of electronic fluid in which atomic nuclei move about freely, colliding at speed and fusing to generate the heat that keeps the star burning. The material at the centre of the Earth is compressed to the extent that the atoms there have only about 85% of the diameter that they would have on the surface. The mass concentrated in the Earth’s core is calculated to be about 12 g/cm3, far denser than the Earth’s average density of about 5.52 g/cm3. The Earth has about 31.5% of its mass concentrated in only 16.2% of its volume in the relatively small core.
Because gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of gravity, the size of an object has a direct correlation to its gravitational field. Examples of this are found by comparing Earth and the Moon or Earth and Jupiter. Earth contains 81 times as much mass as the moon but its gravity is not 81 times that of the Moon. Because Earth has a radius 3.663 times larger than the Moon, and as gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance we need to divide 81 by 3.6632 (13.44) to find that Earth’s gravity is 6 times greater than that of the Moon, similarly even though Jupiter has more than a thousand times the mass of the Earth its surface gravity is less than three times that of the Earth. This principle becomes important when we begin to examine the universe, when the universe had expanded half as much as it has today its gravitational field would have been the square of what it is today.
We now consider the effect of the expanding universe on the constants G and C and of recent observations that indicate a variation in those constants. Hypotheses such as Modified Newtonian Dynamics, called MOND by its founder, Mordecai Milgrom, or Jacob Bekenstein’s relativistic covariant theory of gravity (TeVeS), published in 2004 question the accuracy of the Standard Model and propose alternatives. Professor Joao Mageeijo of Imperial College, London proposes that the speed of light is variable, a concept not proved but possibly somewhat supported by observations from the Parkes Radio Telescope in N.S.W. that showed anomalies in the light from distant stars. Professor Davies from Macquarie University in Sydney calculated that the reason was that light from the stars was not travelling at the speed, which is normally constant for light.
It is my contention that both G and C are constant, and as immutable as π and that perceived variations are illusory but explainable within the framework of the Standard Model. These variations are produced by the expansion of the universe and its diminishing density. In accordance with Mach’s Principle gravity is completely determined by the mass-energy distribution of the universe and the universe’s gravitational field will decrease as the universe expands. We need to be specific as to whether we are describing gravitational field or force; field is variable, force is not. We have found no reason to question any of the other forces by which particles react one to another, neither the strong or weak nuclear forces nor electromagnetic force, it is therefore logical to assume that gravitational force is also constant.
Density of mass determines the strength of its gravitational field, distances between objects in the universe have been increasing since the big bang and the universe now is far larger than when it began, therefore the universe’s mass is no longer as dense as the original universe. This concept proposes that dark matter, dark energy and other apparent anomalies are a natural product of the standard model subject to a variation relevant to Hubble’s constant. This also provides an explanation of the structure of both time and gravity. In an earlier denser universe even atomic particles would be more closely aligned just as the particles within the Earth’s core are compressed. Because the early universe was denser than it is at present; time passed more slowly than it does today and because time is the very essence of our calculation of speed (V=d/t) a variation in the rate at which time passes will effect the speed of light and our entire understanding of the universe.
In Special Relativity the relationship between the passage of time and velocity is explained, we can summarise this explanation simply by saying that the total velocity in both the time dimension and the spatial dimension is always equal. That is;
time velocity2 + spatial velocity2 = c2
in other words the faster we move through space the slower we move through time.
A great deal has been written about gravitational effect on the passage of time and there are points (such as the event horizon of a black hole) where gravitational forces become so powerful that time appears to stop (relative to a distant observer). The “normal” rate at which time passes can only occur where there is no mass and where there is mass the rate of progression is determined according to the amount of gravitational force or inertia at that particular point. Mass, gravity and inertia are all the same force and as we can measure gravity by how much objects accelerate toward each other and it is inertia or resistance to movement in time that creates gravity we can then show that correlation as;
time velocity2 + Gravity2 = c2
just as time and space must always equal c2 so too must gravity and time.
The decrease in the gravitational field of the universe means that every historic particle has a greater density than the equivalent particle today, every historic particle is in fact a WIMP (Weakly Interactive Massive Particle) creating the illusion that distant galaxies contain more mass than we can ascertain (dark matter).
The use of smaller units of time with each measurement of an event (i.e. the expansion of the universe) creates an illusion that the expansion is rapidly increasing (dark energy) when it is actually the units by which we measure time that are shrinking. A similar problem occurs when we observe objects over a long period of time (Pioneer spacecraft) they appear to be changing pace but it is actually our measuring device (clock) that is changing. We can use this anomaly to provide the basis for a simple thought experiment to demonstrate that time is accelerating. We can pick some arbitrary numbers to demonstrate the time difference, let us assume the Pioneer spacecraft was launched at 40,000km per hour and is now 400,000km from its projected position, this represents ten hours of travel time. Thus indicating that the total amount by which time has accelerated in the 36 years since launch date is ten hours.
The concepts propounded by Newton and Einstein and already accepted as the cornerstones of modern physics can explain anomalies such as dark matter and dark energy. By looking for more complex puzzles we are ignoring the obvious basic solution, additionally the very existence of these anomalies is proof that the theory first published in 1989 is correct and time does indeed accelerate as the universe expands.
The horizon problem is our first puzzle, it arises because our universe is too uniform; the edges are twenty-eight billion light years apart and nothing can travel faster than the speed of light so there is no way heat radiation could have travelled between the two horizons to even out the hot and cold spots created in the big bang and leave the thermal equilibrium we see now.The next puzzle is dark matter. In the late 1970s, Vera Rubin an astronomer working at the Carnegie Institute in Washington DC, discovered there is not enough mass in distant galaxies to produce the observed spin. The response from physicists was to suggest there must be more matter out there than we can see and they call this unexplained material Dark matter. Then in 1998, astronomers discovered that the universe is expanding at ever-faster speeds, until then, everyone thought the universe's expansion was slowing down after the big bang they coined the term Dark energy to explain this strange acceleration.
Pioneer 10 was launched in 1972 and Pioneer 11 followed a year later but something has been pulling, or pushing them enough to have shifted Pioneer 10 over 400,000 kilometres off track. NASA lost touch with Pioneer 11 in 1995, but up to that point it was being subjected to exactly the same deviation as its sister probe. A multitude of theories have been considered in the effort to explain these abnormalities but none has provided a provable solution. Strings, branes and other concepts are less able to solve the mysteries than is the Standard Model hypothesis.
Einstein’s theories form the foundation of our understanding and one of the physicists on whose work Einstein based his concepts was Ernst Mach. Mach’s Principle is a term coined by Einstein in 1918; although Einstein later abandoned the principle when it was realized that inertia is implicit in the geodesic equation of motion and need not depend on the existence of matter elsewhere in the universe. The core of "Mach's Principle" is something like this: the inertia of a body is determined in relation to all other bodies in the universe (in short, "matter there governs inertia here"). Mach reputedly claimed that, “All masses and all velocities, and consequently all forces, are relative. There is no decision about relative and absolute which we can possibly meet, to which we are forced, or from which we can obtain any intellectual or other advantage.” In other words Mach extended relativity to include even the velocity of light, an idea not disproved by Einstein but not really understood within the framework of the relativity theories. Despite the fact that Einstein’s time dilation concept should lead us to no other conclusion.
In 1989 my book (The Time Illusion) explained that time itself varies, a concept that can explain not only the problems confounding cosmologists but also many questions of quantum physics such as the nature of Bohm’s implicate and explicate orders and account for so called “paranormal” events. It was not until the discovery of dark energy and the Pioneer Anomaly followed by advances in mathematics (particularly iterated polynomials) that I was able to fully calculate the nature and effect of these changes in time and how they explain the structure of the universe. The result was published in my 2006 book (Physics God and the End of the World) which presented not only a model describing the nature of time and the structure of the universe but also explained prophecy and the paranormal. It concluded that the existence of a Supreme Being is more probable than not; a deduction guaranteed to alienate one from much of the scientific mainstream.
In order to understand the structure of spacetime and Mach’s Principle and how these describe the mysteries of the universe we must first have a proper understanding of gravity. Not simply knowledge of the mathematics but a proper understanding of how matter, energy and time respond to the influence of gravitational force.
Newton’s laws of gravity state, “Every particle of matter in the universe attracts every other particle. With a force whose direction is that of the joining of the two, and whose magnitude is directly proportional to their masses and inversely proportional to the square of their distance from each other”. When particles come together in sufficient numbers, the combined gravitational force has an effect on the structure of atoms and molecules, for example, calculations show the matter at the centre of the Earth to be under pressure equal 3.7 million times that of air pressure at sea level. In the centre of stars matter is so compressed by the force of gravity that the electron shells collapse into a kind of electronic fluid in which atomic nuclei move about freely, colliding at speed and fusing to generate the heat that keeps the star burning. The material at the centre of the Earth is compressed to the extent that the atoms there have only about 85% of the diameter that they would have on the surface. The mass concentrated in the Earth’s core is calculated to be about 12 g/cm3, far denser than the Earth’s average density of about 5.52 g/cm3. The Earth has about 31.5% of its mass concentrated in only 16.2% of its volume in the relatively small core.
Because gravitational force is directly proportional to the mass and inversely proportional to the square of the distance from the centre of gravity, the size of an object has a direct correlation to its gravitational field. Examples of this are found by comparing Earth and the Moon or Earth and Jupiter. Earth contains 81 times as much mass as the moon but its gravity is not 81 times that of the Moon. Because Earth has a radius 3.663 times larger than the Moon, and as gravity is inversely proportional to the square of the distance we need to divide 81 by 3.6632 (13.44) to find that Earth’s gravity is 6 times greater than that of the Moon, similarly even though Jupiter has more than a thousand times the mass of the Earth its surface gravity is less than three times that of the Earth. This principle becomes important when we begin to examine the universe, when the universe had expanded half as much as it has today its gravitational field would have been the square of what it is today.
We now consider the effect of the expanding universe on the constants G and C and of recent observations that indicate a variation in those constants. Hypotheses such as Modified Newtonian Dynamics, called MOND by its founder, Mordecai Milgrom, or Jacob Bekenstein’s relativistic covariant theory of gravity (TeVeS), published in 2004 question the accuracy of the Standard Model and propose alternatives. Professor Joao Mageeijo of Imperial College, London proposes that the speed of light is variable, a concept not proved but possibly somewhat supported by observations from the Parkes Radio Telescope in N.S.W. that showed anomalies in the light from distant stars. Professor Davies from Macquarie University in Sydney calculated that the reason was that light from the stars was not travelling at the speed, which is normally constant for light.
It is my contention that both G and C are constant, and as immutable as π and that perceived variations are illusory but explainable within the framework of the Standard Model. These variations are produced by the expansion of the universe and its diminishing density. In accordance with Mach’s Principle gravity is completely determined by the mass-energy distribution of the universe and the universe’s gravitational field will decrease as the universe expands. We need to be specific as to whether we are describing gravitational field or force; field is variable, force is not. We have found no reason to question any of the other forces by which particles react one to another, neither the strong or weak nuclear forces nor electromagnetic force, it is therefore logical to assume that gravitational force is also constant.
Density of mass determines the strength of its gravitational field, distances between objects in the universe have been increasing since the big bang and the universe now is far larger than when it began, therefore the universe’s mass is no longer as dense as the original universe. This concept proposes that dark matter, dark energy and other apparent anomalies are a natural product of the standard model subject to a variation relevant to Hubble’s constant. This also provides an explanation of the structure of both time and gravity. In an earlier denser universe even atomic particles would be more closely aligned just as the particles within the Earth’s core are compressed. Because the early universe was denser than it is at present; time passed more slowly than it does today and because time is the very essence of our calculation of speed (V=d/t) a variation in the rate at which time passes will effect the speed of light and our entire understanding of the universe.
In Special Relativity the relationship between the passage of time and velocity is explained, we can summarise this explanation simply by saying that the total velocity in both the time dimension and the spatial dimension is always equal. That is;
time velocity2 + spatial velocity2 = c2
in other words the faster we move through space the slower we move through time.
A great deal has been written about gravitational effect on the passage of time and there are points (such as the event horizon of a black hole) where gravitational forces become so powerful that time appears to stop (relative to a distant observer). The “normal” rate at which time passes can only occur where there is no mass and where there is mass the rate of progression is determined according to the amount of gravitational force or inertia at that particular point. Mass, gravity and inertia are all the same force and as we can measure gravity by how much objects accelerate toward each other and it is inertia or resistance to movement in time that creates gravity we can then show that correlation as;
time velocity2 + Gravity2 = c2
just as time and space must always equal c2 so too must gravity and time.
The decrease in the gravitational field of the universe means that every historic particle has a greater density than the equivalent particle today, every historic particle is in fact a WIMP (Weakly Interactive Massive Particle) creating the illusion that distant galaxies contain more mass than we can ascertain (dark matter).
The use of smaller units of time with each measurement of an event (i.e. the expansion of the universe) creates an illusion that the expansion is rapidly increasing (dark energy) when it is actually the units by which we measure time that are shrinking. A similar problem occurs when we observe objects over a long period of time (Pioneer spacecraft) they appear to be changing pace but it is actually our measuring device (clock) that is changing. We can use this anomaly to provide the basis for a simple thought experiment to demonstrate that time is accelerating. We can pick some arbitrary numbers to demonstrate the time difference, let us assume the Pioneer spacecraft was launched at 40,000km per hour and is now 400,000km from its projected position, this represents ten hours of travel time. Thus indicating that the total amount by which time has accelerated in the 36 years since launch date is ten hours.
The concepts propounded by Newton and Einstein and already accepted as the cornerstones of modern physics can explain anomalies such as dark matter and dark energy. By looking for more complex puzzles we are ignoring the obvious basic solution, additionally the very existence of these anomalies is proof that the theory first published in 1989 is correct and time does indeed accelerate as the universe expands.
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